In 2018, I started flight training with Windy City Aviation. Due to personal isues, I discontinued training in 2019. At the start of 2021, I restarted training. As port of the process, I started producing this information as a way of studying my source material. I am not a certified flight instructor and this is my compilation of knowledge I apply to flight.
Image 1: Four Forces of Flight
Weight is the force caused by gravity. It includes weight of the aircraft, fuel, passengers, and baggage.
Lift is the force that holds an airplane in the air. The wings create most of the lift used by airplanes. Lift is produced by airflow over the airfoil shape of the wing. The airfoil shape makes the air path longer over the wing than under. The faster moving air over the wing creates a low pressure zone that creates the lift keeping the aircraft in the air. The amount of lift is a function of several variables, but the two we can control are the airspeed and the angle of attack.
Thrust is a force that moves an aircraft in the direction of the motion. It is created with a propeller, jet engine, or rocket. Air is pulled in and then pushed out in an opposite direction. One example is a household fan.
Drag is the force that acts opposite to the direction of motion. It tends to slow an object. Drag is caused by friction and differences in air pressure. An example is putting your hand out of a moving car window and feeling it pull back.
There are two types of drag that come into play when discussing aircraft: Parasitic and Induced Drag.
Induced Drag is drag which is caused by the pilot/aircraft. It is associated with the angle of attack, and generation of lift. Induced drag generally decreases with speed.
Parasitic Drag increases with speed and can be broken into three categroies. Form Drag is based on Aircraft shape interference with the air. Skin Friction is generated by turbulent flow of air over the airframe. Interference Drag includes turblulence, wind tip vortices, and trailing edge air separation.
Image 2: Drag Relationship
The low point on the total drag graph is noted as the best glide speed and is specified by the manufacturer for each aircraft.
Lift works opposite of weight. Thrust works opposite of drag. When the forces are balanced, a plane flies in a level direction. The plane goes up if the forces of lift and thrust are more than gravity and drag. If gravity and drag are bigger than lift and thrust, the plane goes down. Just as drag holds something back as a response to wind flow, lift pushes something up. The air pressure is higher on the bottom side of a wing, so it is pushed upward.
Stability is a measure of an aircraft's desire to reach and maintain an equilibirum state. Different aircraft have different stability characteristics.
This stability understanding is broken into two types: Static and Dynamic.
Static stability is the desire for an aircraft to maintain the current condition in equilibrium.
Stability is characterized in three types: Positive, Neutral and Negative.
Positive Stability is a characteristic of an aircraft to move from a less stable condition to a more stable condition. As an example, the Cessna 172 in a bank will tend to return to level flight with no input from the pilot due to the wing slope. Similarly, the Cessna 172 exhibits a similar behavori in pitch with a forward center of gravity.
Neutral Stability is a characteristic of an aircraft to maintain a condition, irrespective of stability. Aircraft with non sloping wings can exhibit neutral stabiltiy in a turn, such as a Velocity Aircraft. It will not return to level without pilot input.
Negative Stability is a characteristic of an aircraft to move from a more stable condition to a less stable condition. Aircaft without veritical stabilizers, like the B2 Bomber, or the Stealth Fighter required significant computer inputs to control surfaces to maintain stability.
Dynamic Stability is the aircraft tendency to seek equilibrium when disrupted by pilot input.
Positive stability will see to return to a neutral stable condition. Neutral stability will oscillate between stability and will require correction to reach equilibrium. Negative stability will lead or oscillation or instability if not corrected. The Cessna 172 exhibits positive dynamic stability.
The center of gravity in relation to the center of lift arrects the behavoir and performance of all aircraft. For a general forward CG aircraft with a horizontal stabilizer the following are true:
Forward CG causes the airplane to nose down, and a higher angle of attack will be required to balance out the forces. The elevator, which is in the aft end provides a counter balancing force to the nose down attitude. The airplane will need nose up trim, will be more stable and will cruise slower. This is because there is more pressure and drag from the stabilizer.
For Aft CG, elevators must produce less downward force to maintain level flight, so the aircraft will fly more nose low. The effects of this are poor longitudinal stability, reduced capacity to recover from stalls and spins, and creates a situation where very light control forces and make it easier for the pilot to over stress the aircraft with smaller deflections. It also causes an increase in cruise speed. These effects stem from less tail pressure on the stabilizer. Stall recovery will be difficult, and in some cases impossible, because of less tail pressure. Have you ever noticed that you’re not allowed to have passengers is some small airplanes when practicing stalls and spins? The extra rearward CG causes the airplane to be out of the utility category, which is required for stall and spin practice. The Cessna 172 are like that. A rearward CG changes the flight characteristics enough to make upset recovery difficult.
Asymetric Propeller Loading – Observed as a Yaw
The descending propeller blade is engaging more air than the ascending blade. Descending blade is on the right side, creating more thrust on the right pushing the plane to the left.
This is greatest when at a high angle of attack, such as take off and climbing.
Apply right rudder to correct.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion – Observed as a Yaw
For every action there is a reaction. The required torque to spin the engine blade must be resisted by the airframe. Propeller moved clockwise form the pilot’s perspective, increasing the load on the left wheel when on the ground and the left wing in the air. The result is the plane wanting to dip to the left and turn in that direction.
This is greatest when at high power output and most noticed during takeoff roll as it affects load on the left wheel. It also contributes to other left turning tendencies during requiring more lift from the left wing.
Apply right rudder and small amount of right aileron to correct.
The airflow from the propeller spirals around the airframe and impacts the left side of the vertical stabilizer, pushing the nose to the left. This is greatest at initial power and takeoff. Corrected with right rudder.
Rigidity in space and procession – Observed as a Yaw
The force applied to a spinning object is actioned 90° after application.
When in flight, this is a “right turning tendency” because like the P-Factor, the propeller engages more air on the bottom swing, which turns into a force on the left side creating a right turn tenancy. Correct this with left rudder.
During takeoff and when accelerating in ground effect, moving the elevator down to limit angle of attack will result in the opposite effect, creating a left turning tendency. This is most pronounced with short takeoffs. Correct with right rudder.
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This section is the boring regulatory summary. All information contained below is required for the private pilot exam. Some of these topics are covered in other sections.
Airmen are certiffied for aircraft category and class. The table below shows the 4 Categories of Aircraft and the categories below.
Under these categories, there are variou classes.
| AIRPLANES | ROTOCRAFT | LIGHTER THAN AIR | GLIDERS |
|
Single-engine land
Single-engine sea Multi-engine land Multi-engine sea |
Helicopter
Rotocraft |
Baloon
Airship |
None |
Aircraft are certified based upon intended use. There are seven categories of use:
1) Transport
2) Normal
3) Utility
4) Limited
5) Restricted
6) Acrobatic
7) Provisional
Each category has similar classes and categories as shown in the table above.
The following table is a definition of the common velocities common to most aircraft.
| V SPEED | Definition |
| VA | Design maneuvering speed. |
| VFE | Maximum flaps extended speed. |
| VLE | Maximum landing bear extended speed. |
| VNE | Never exceed speed. |
| VNO | Maximum normal operating speed. |
| VR | Rotation speed on takeoff |
| VS0 | Stall speed in landing configuration. |
| VS1 | Stall speed in clean configuration (flaps and gear up) |
| Vx | Best angle of climb. This is usefil for object avoidance on climb out. |
| Vy | Best rate of climb. This provides best rate of climb but has a higher speed. |
The airplane's airworthiness certificate is valid as long as maintenance (and any other alterations) are performed in accorance with all regulations. Which as a practical matter means you cannot alter the aircraft without getting approval from the FAA (a Supplemental Type Certificate) for all modifications, assuming the plane has a type certificate.
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) are issued by the FAA, and are published on the FAA website. Compliance with ADs is Mandatory. You can legally operate an unrepaired aircraft, only if the AD allows it.
This section covers maintenance, preventative maintenace, rebuilding and alteration.
As the Pilot in Command, you are directly responsible for, and the final authority as to the operation of the aircraft.
A Pilot may perform preventive maintenance as permitted by Appendix A section(c) of this section provided the aircraft is not used in air carrier services.
Only a Private Pilot (or higher) may return an aircraft to service.
After work is performed, you must document the work in the maintenance records.
When operating the airplane, either as pilot in command or as a crewmember, the pilot must have their pilot license and medical certificate in their possession. These documents must be presented to the FAA, NTSB, or law enforcemetn upon request.
Any motor vehicle action involving drugs or alcohol must be reported to the FAA within 60 days of the occurence.
Medical certificates are valid until the last day of the 60th month after the month of the exam if you are under 40 on the date of the exam. Medical certificates are valid until the last day of the 24th month after the month of the exam if you are over 40 on the date of the exam.
To serve as pilot in command for a complex aircraft, you must recieve a log book endorsement. A complex aiplane has flaps, retractable gear, and a controllable pitch propeller.
To serve as pilot in command for a high power aircraft, you must recieve a log book endorsement. A high power aiplane has more than 200 horsepower.
Absent a type rating, a pilot may not be pilot in command of a
1) Plane of gross weight greater than 12,500lbs
2) A turbojet
3) Other FAA specified aircraft.
To act as pilot in command, a flight review must be conducted not later than the last day of the month of the 24th month after the prior review. A flight review is a minimum of 1 hour ground time and 1 hour flight time.
To act as Pilot in Command with passengers, you must complete 3 takeoffs and landings within the last 90 days. The requirements must be met in the same class and category (and type if required). For tailwheel aircraft, the landings must be full stop.
To carry passengers at night, the requirements are the same, but must be completed at night. Also landing must be full stop.
Night is the time between civil twilight and morning twilight, as defined in the Air Almanac. For purposes of Recency of Experience, Night is defined as 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise.
If a pilot changes his address, he must nform the FAA within 30 days.
A private pilot must pay their pro rata share of a flight to include fuel, oil, airport expenses, and rental fees. Private pilots cannot be compensated.
To tow a glider, a pilot must hold a private pilot license, have 100 hours as pilot in command in the same class, category and type if applicable. You must also have a log book endoresment certifying ground training. Within the last 24 months, the pilot must have 3 actual or simulated tows with a qualified pilot or 3 flights as pilot in command of a towed glider.
Federal airspace includes Echo Airspace, which extends from 1,200 AGL upto 17,999 MSL. Refer to the previous airspace section for additional information.
In an emergency (delcared or not), the Pilot in Command (PIC) may deviate from Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) in order to maintain the safety of the aircraft and passengers. The PIC is directly responsible for the operation of the aircraft and is the final authority on the operation of the aircraft.
The PIC is responsible for determining if the aircraft is in safe condition for flight before each flight.
The PIC is responsibe for the passenger briefing. Passenger briefings should discuss safety belts, door operation/emergency exits, ditching procedures, survival equipment and oxygen equiment usage if installed.
No person can serve as a cewmember if they have consumed alcohol within the last 8 hours or if their blood alcohol content is higher than 0.04, or if any drug would interfere with flying the plane. Operating (or attmepting to operate) an aircraft under the influence can kill the pilot and passengers and/or cost the pilot his license.
Before flying, pilots are required to evaluate several factors covered in Part 91.103.
N - NOTAMs
W - Weather
K - Known ATC Delays
R - Runway Lengths
A - Alternative Airports
F - Fuel Requirements
T - Takeoff and Landing Distances.
Seat belts are required for crew at all times. Shoulder harnessed are required for crewmembers during takeoff and landing if available.
All passengers must wear safety belts during taxi takeoff and landing. A passenger younger than 2 may be held by a passenger.
Formation flight is permitted by prior arrangement only.
The acronym ARROW represents the five documnets required to be in the plane:
A - Airworthiness Certificate
R - Registration
R - Radio License
O - Operating Limits contained within the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH)
W - Weight and Balance Data
Experimental Aircraft may not have a Pilot Operating Handbook, therefore the Operating
Limits may be on the Airworthiness certificate.
No person may operate a civil aircraft without the Airworthiness Certificate displayed. The Registration must also be in the plane.
Owners are responsible for maintaining records that show the repair history and document return to service. After repairs that alter flight characteristics, the aircraft must be test flown prior to return to service. The pilot must be at least a private pilot and rate for the type of aircraft.
Annual Inspections must be performed no later than the last day of the month 12 months after the prior inspection. Aircraft used for compensation must also be inspected every 100 hours. ATC transponders must be inspected every 24 months. An aircraft cannot fly without a valid annual inspection, or a ferry permit.
Below 10,000ft, the speed limit is 250 knots. Within Bravo airspace, the speed limit is 250 knots. Below Bravo airspace or within VFR Bravo corridor, the speed limit is 200 knots. Under 2,500 AGL amd within 4 Nautical Miles of Charlie or Delta airspace, the speed limit is 200 knots.
Over congested areas, relative to the nearest obstable, pilots must maintain 1,000 ft above and 2,000 ft horizontal. Away from congested areas, pilots must maintain 500 ft AGL and stay 500 ft from any person, place, or thing. Altitude must always be sufficient to allow for landing in the event of engine failure.
Prior to takeoff, the altimeter must be set according to weather briefing, or else set according to the to match the weather bried or else set to the airfield elevation. At or above 18,000 ft MSL, the altimeter should be set to 29.92 in inches of Hg. Altitude must always be sufficient to allow for landing in the event of engine failure.
Aircraft in distress have right of way over all others.
Two aircraft appraoching head on, both turn right.
Two aircraft of different categories, right of way belongs to baloons, then gliders,
then airships, then airplanes and rotocraft. The general rule is that less maneuverable has right
of way over more maneuverable.
Two same category aircraft with nearly the same altitude and heading, the right of way
goes to the aircraft on the right.
Two aircraft landing, the lower aircraft has the right of way.
For water operations, the vessel to the right has the right of way.
If ATC clearance is obtained, no PIC can deviate from that clearance, except in an emergency, or if an ammended clearance is obtained, or in response to a collision avoidance system or traffic alert.
If you recieve priority clearance from ATC in an emergency, on request, the pilot must file a report within 48 hours with that ATC facility.
For all pilots:
You cannot operate VFR in Class A airspace.
You can operate in Restricted Airspace without prior approval.
Pilots can legally pass through Restricted Areas, MOAs, Warning Areas, and Alert Areas without
"clearance", but only if they are cold. If they are hot, there will be a NOTAM. Pilots should have
flight following for a long cross country flight anyway, in which case ATC will know the status.
The only absolute is don't go in a Prohibited Area unless you want to obtain a fighter escort.
Operating in Bravo airspace requires:
A private pilot license, or a student license with appropriate endorsement.
Clearance from ATC
A Mode C transponder.
If a student pilot, to operate in Bravo airspace, the student pilot must:
Receive flight and ground endorsement instruction on that specific Bravo airspace.
Have a logbook endorsement within 90 days for that specific airport.
Pilots are required to have sufficient fuel to to travel to their intended destination and normal cruise plus 30 minutes during the day and 45 minutes at night.
Cabin pressure oxygen is required for all occupants above 15,000 MSL. Between 12,500 MSL and 14,000 MSL, pilots and crewmembers cannot operate for more than 30 minutes without supplemental oxygen. Supplemental oxygen at cabin pressure is required for pilots and crewmembers above 14,000 MSL.
Special VFR may be granted into Bravo and other airspace. SVFR weatehr minimums are 1 statute mile and clear of clouds. SVFR is available at night only id the pilot is Instrament Rated and the plane is IFR certified.
When cruising between 3,000 AGL and 18,000 MSL, prescribed altitude is based on your magnetic course. Not your heading. When traveling VFR on a course between 0 and 179 degrees, fly at odd thousands plus 500ft. When travelign VFR course between 180 and 359 degrees, fly at even thousands plus 500ft. Remember "East is off, west is even odder".
All aircraft must have an altitude encoding (Mode C) transponder in Class A, within 30 NM of Class Bravo Airspace, within and above Class C, and above 10,000 MSL unless less than 2,500 AGL.
Unless wearing a parachute, don't exceed a 60° bank or 30° pitch up or down. Parachutes with synthetic fibers must be packed within 180 days, natural fibers must be packed within 60 days.
Restricted category civil aircraft may not operate over densley populated areas, in congested airways, or near an airport where passenger transport is conducted.
Expermientally certified aircraft may not be operated over densley populated areas, in congested airways, unless authorized by the FAA.
Aicraft operating between sunset and sunrise must display NAV Lights, expect in Alaska.
Emergency Locator Transponder (ELT) batteries must be replaced after 1 cumulative hour usage or 50% of their useful life. ELTs can be tested on the ground during the first five minutes of the hour.
Dropping objects form an aircraft is legal, but the pilot is responsible.
Every accident with substantial damage must be reported immediately to the nearest NTSB field office.
The following incidents must also be reported:
Inability of a pilot or crewmember to perform their duties due to either
illness or injury.
In flight fire
Flight control failure
An overdue airplane; or if an accident is suspected
Mid-air collisions
Turbine engine failure
Until the NTSB takes charge, wreckage may not be moved except to remove injured people, preserve the wreckage, or prevent public injury.
An operator must file a report within 10 days with the NTSB, or 7 days for an ovedue aircraft.
Incidents beyond those mentioned above will also require a report when requested by the NTSB.
Understanding and memorizing airspace is one of the more important and annoying parts of the test. It is not recommended to take the private pilot written test or check ride, until you can read a sectional chart, identify airspace, and remember the VFR weather minima.
The pilot needs to know what airspace the aircraft is in.
When flying in the vicinity of an airport, the pilot is responsible for determining operating conditions.
An invaluable resorce for enroute weather is a flight service station. The FSS standard frequencey is 122.2.
Marginal VFR is when ceilings are below 3,000 ft AGL or visibility if between 3 SM and 5SM. MVFR only relates to the aerodrome, not the conditions you will find while flying. It si very dangerous for VFR flying becasue you may encounter IFR during your flight.
| AIRSPACE | WEATHER MINIMA |
| Alpha | No minimums. ATC clearance and contact is required. |
| Bravo | 3 SM Clear of Clouds |
| Charlie | 3 SM, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 horizontal |
| Delta | 3 SM, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 horizontal |
| Echo, Below 10k ft | 3 SM, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 horizontal |
| Echo, Above 10k ft | 5 SM, 1,000 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 1 SM horizontal |
| Golf, Below 1,200 AGL, Day | 1 SM, Clear of Clouds |
| Golf, Below 10,000 MSL, Night | 3SM, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal |
| Golf, Above 1,200 AGL and 10k MSL | 5SM, 1,000 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 1 SM horizontal |
| Golf, Between 1,200 AGL and 10k MSL, Day | 1SM, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal |
| Golf, Between 1,200 AGL and 10k MSL, Night | 3SM, 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal |
Most fatal accidents occur due to VFR into IMC. Refer to YouTube for videos on VFR into IMC.